Foundational perspectives of sociology can be applied to aging and gerontology — the study of old age, the process of aging, and the particular problems of older populations. But with any field, demographic, or topic, more specific theories offer a closer look. Continuity theory, disengagement theory, and activity theory all focus on explaining age in different ways. They are direct contrasts from each other and can be helpful when discussing social problems people experience as they age.
Continuity Theory
Middle-aged and older adults use adaptive measures to promote mental and physical continuity. Continuity theory is a micro-level psychosocial theory connected to aging. Continuity theory states that older adults maintain activities, behaviors, and relationships they had in young adulthood and adulthood, and this connects them to a sense of familiarity that increases life satisfaction.
As adults age, they experience many changes. Empty nest syndrome, when the final child permanently leaves the household, might hit a parent in their mid-40s or early 50s. Hair begins to turn gray and thins out because of hormonal changes. Similarly, hearing and vision loss happen to some people as early as their 40s. As a result, older adults try to build internal and external structures that have taken them a lifetime to build. Internal structures are personality, ideas, and beliefs that don’t experience change as people transition through life stages. External structures are relationships and social roles that support the self-image. The internal and external structures are products of continuity and the base of continuity theory.
There are a few problems that are not addressed with the continuity theory. External structures should include social institutions that influence individuals as they age — the theory focuses on interpersonal relationships, but how could family structure and trends in religion also impact an individual? Continuity theory is also framed in the “normal aging process,” so it fails to address adults with chronic illness, those who experience neglect or abuse, and those who experience pathological aging.
Disengagement Theory
People don’t always stay attached to the internal and external structures discussed in continuity theory. Disengagement theory argues that as adults age, they gradually disconnect from social relationships and society. The disengagement is mutual — society partakes in leaving the aging individual just as much as the individual leaves society. When disengagement theory was first described in 1961, theorists considered it a natural process that would happen to every individual eventually.
Due to aging, individuals are often forced to withdraw from their previous activities, behaviors, and routines. If an older adult requires a hip replacement or experiences joint pain, they are less likely to continue participating in walks with friends and family or creating crafts. There is less contact with interpersonal relationships, resulting in disengagement.
Disengagement theory is not free of criticism. Not everyone disengages within a society, and disengagement is not a universal experience. Some people lean toward an aging process from the continuity perspective. Disengagement on the individual’s part might not be voluntary — it could be an outcome of social structures and institutions isolating aging adults.
Active Theory
Activity theory proposes that aging adults who are active into later stages of life will have the highest life satisfaction. The theory directly responds to the disengagement theory, which proposes the opposite. Activity can be physical and social. There are numerous health benefits to staying physically active as people get older, and social ties often ground people within society as they age. Meaningful activities, such as cooking for a family member or joining a club with people who have similar hobbies, are even better once a person hits retirement and transitions into later life stages.
The active theory is backed by five decades of gerontological research and is regarded as more accurate than disengagement theory. Socialization is important to self-worth and life expectancy; the more an individual socializes and interacts with other people and society, the longer they might live and be happy. However, the theory fails to recognize the economic and health inequality older adults face. If someone doesn’t have money for clubs and hobbies or transportation to be included in larger social institutions, they could experience a less active lifestyle.
Conclusions and Further Discussion
Continuity theory states that aging adults attempt to preserve relationships, behaviors, and personalities using internal and external structures. Disengagement theory proposes that individuals and society disconnect from each other as they age. Activity theory claims remaining active in society through socialization will increase aging individuals’ quality of life. What are some other comparisons or differences you can spot? Which theoretical perspective do you think works best, and why?
Mortimer is a guest blogger at UITAC Publishing. UITAC’s mission is to provide high-quality, affordable, and socially responsible online course materials.
Images used in this blog:
- “Worn Out” by Aditya Wardhana is licensed by Unsplash. This image has not been altered.
- “Artem Ismagilov routine before Baikal winter marathon” by Clique Images is licensed by Unsplash. This image has not been altered.
